M5- Learner Manual
4. Maintaining Cultural Identity
Maintaining Cultural Identity through Language
In the early days of colonialism according to Walsh, there were more than 250 distinct Aboriginal social groupings and a similar number of languages or varieties. These 250 languages included about 800 dialects, with each language being particular to country and peoples. Currently only around 120 are still spoken and of these, most are considered endangered.
These peoples all spoke more than one language, as is usually the case for speakers of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages. This was important as each nation and clan needed to speak their own language and the languages of groups with which they shared boundaries and had relationships, for trade, marriage, cultural, environmental and resource sharing.
They needed also to know whether their languages were passed down through their mother’s (matrilineal) or their father’s (patrilineal) line. This was connected to their moiety and was important for the way that trade and kinship with other clans was structured - matrilineal to matrilineal and patrilineal to patrilineal.
The deterioration of Aboriginal languages was brought about by a number of factors. These included:
· Disease and massacres which devastated clans, especially around the areas colonised early in the piece.
· Through government policies such as Protection and Assimilation, Integration and the forcible removal of children, peoples were moved off traditional lands onto missions and stations and connected groups and families were dispersed and stolen from each other.
· As is the case for many colonised and overthrown Indigenous peoples around the world, they were restricted (or forbidden e.g., Irish, Icelandic) to speak their own languages. This was clearly the case on missions and stations.
· The restrictions on movement and interaction with neighbouring clan groups due to being moved away, blocked by fencing and built infrastructure in the quickly changing landscapes, helped to deplete languages further and secure disconnection from relatives in other language groups, hence kinship ties.
This separation and breaking of linkage was devastating for Aboriginal culture as a whole. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander culture is an oral culture. All forms of knowledge are held in language through songs and stories. There is no written information to refer to. Language connects peoples to their country and to spiritual and cultural practices. Many daily life skills and practical knowledge (e.g., environmentally sustainable practices) became inaccessible and buried.
It has been recognised that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages are vitally important for the maintenance and retrieval of culture and identity. Language programs have been running in primary schools in regional and remote locations in recent years, which is helping to halt the loss of remaining spoken languages.
In NSW, planning and consultation are currently taking place to amend legislation and processes to the First Languages Bill and the Land Rights Act. These will inform the proposed, standalone Aboriginal Cultural Heritage Bill. This legislation is being revised and created to support the work of the proposed Aboriginal Cultural Heritage Authority (ACHA). Other states and territories have similar legislation that is in varying states of amendment.
The Aboriginal Cultural Heritage Authority will assist in supporting Indigenous Languages and Arts program for projects and organisations that support participation in and maintenance of Indigenous culture through languages and the arts. There are specified government funds for language retrieval and maintenance programs, with additional funds recently allocated.
When considering language retrieval and maintenance it is the old people, traditional owners and elders who are so very important, as they are the ones who have knowledge and use of language that can be passed on.
The United Nations General Assembly has declared 2019 the International Year of Indigenous Languages (IY2019) to raise awareness of the crucial role of languages.
There is more information on what is happening for language maintenance and retrieval through the following link:
https://www.arts.gov.au/what-we-do/indigenous-arts-and-languages
Consider the following question in preparation for your weekly Q&A sessions with your trainer:
Should Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander languages be taught in the Dept of Education mainstream curriculum to all students?
Maintaining Cultural Identity through the Arts
Art is a universal expression of culture and identity for all peoples, globally. The arts are of critical importance to maintaining Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander culture and identity. This is an area where culture can be both strengthened from within and shared with the rest of the world in celebration through a range of arts mediums, including:
· Painting
· Dance
· Theatre
· Film and television
· Music
Aboriginal artists have embraced both traditional and contemporary forms to showcase their culture as a means of connecting with and maintaining their culture and identity as well as socio political commentary and expression of what it means to be an Indigenous person in contemporary Australia.
In traditional ceremonial enactments, there are sections where men or women are supposed to lower their eyes when parts of the enactment are depicting women’s or men’s knowledge, respectively. In displays for NAIDOC or other ‘public show’ of culture this is not required. Sensitive content, such as secret and sacred material will usually be left out or be encoded such that only appropriate persons can ‘read’ it.
This is an area where men’s and women’s activities and responsibilities are often defined. For example, in some communities’ women are wholly forbidden to play the Yidaki (Didgeridoo). In other areas women are not supposed to play during ceremonial gatherings but may play informally.
The traditional processes of art making (in any medium), connects the maker to ancestral knowledge and affirms identity and belonging. The act of making brings ancient aspects of culture (past) into the active present. Knowledge is acquired through being taught as well as the act of making. This may include tending to traditional and spiritual obligation.
Both making and teaching the next generation how to make paintings, objects, dances, songs etc. has always been the primary means of passing on and maintaining culture. This is still the case today.
Cultural knowledge is passed on through the stories that accompany the artistic expression and skills and process of making and performing.
The completed work of art is a little different. Though the completed work establishes and demonstrates community ownership of stories and cultural pride, not all community members are able, or allowed, to know the information it contains. Some of this knowledge is reserved for the initiated or entrusted custodians of specific knowledge. This will be passed on to future members who are assigned such responsibility, which may be encoded or hidden in the completed work.
Theatre, Film and Television
There has been a surge of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander performers in theatre, film and television in recent years. This continues to push forward as they gain confidence and support to tell their stories through these media. Aboriginal actors and directors have gained recognition with international audiences as well as won national and international awards. Many of these artists have become household names for mainstream Australians. In Australia, up until the 1990s Indigenous actors were rarely seen on the screen but since then numbers have increased considerably to the degree that some have become household names.
The National Indigenous Television network (NITV) has had a great impact with exclusive Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander content. It presents a platform for Aboriginal stories and information to be presented from an Indigenous perspective, with content that includes drama, historical accounts, documentaries and satire.
Aboriginal stories are being played on the stage, depicting both traditional and urban Indigenous people’s stories. Recently, there have been theatre productions played wholly in Indigenous language to audiences of both Indigenous and non-Indigenous patrons, to great acclaim. Mainstream Australia is embracing this surge as we all see the high quality of work pour out, helping to build understanding and respect.
Dance
Traditional, ceremonial displays and contemporary dance are well secured in the arts. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander performers are becoming a regular feature for opening both Indigenous and non-indigenous events and celebrations across Australia.
In 1976 the NAISDA Dance Academy welcomed its first students. They learned from collaborations of Indigenous dance creators, western trained choreographers and traditional cultural owners in workshops for young people keen to learn and perform this new dance fusion. NAISDA also had a professional troupe the Aboriginal/Islander Dance Theatre (AIDT). This vibrant touring company employed students and graduates of the new Careers in Dance training program.
Many NAISDA graduates move on to perform with the Bangarra Dance Theatre. This company is renowned nationally and has an international profile as well.
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander performing arts such as dance and theatre, are great platforms for modern performance that is about culture, identity and politics.
Music
Traditional songs and percussion are well known as part of traditional ceremony and dance and is instantly recognisable as Australian Aboriginal music.
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander musicians have also been a feature in Australian mainstream culture for a long time, probably the most prominent of all the arts areas till recent times. Both solo artists and bands are an established feature in Australian music. This is a medium that can reach a very wide audience through the radio and streaming services.
Visual Arts
There is great diversity in the geographic representation, medium and subject matter of Indigenous visual arts. The arts are a primary means of transmitting Indigenous culture and communicating identity, place and belonging. Indigenous knowledge, history and other cultural information has been and continues to be transmitted orally over many generations. Expressive art creation (Dance, ceremony, rock paintings and carvings, western desert and other painting – e.g., Namatjira through to conceptual forms) keeps stories (culture) alive, through the ongoing sharing of information.
Contemporary Indigenous artists often use traditional motif in their work alongside non-traditional elements and materials such as manufactured paints, found objects and European themes and tropes. These works often depict socio-political commentary about oppression, colonialism and the difficulty of being an outsider in a culture reinventing itself to survive in its own country.
Although appropriation (using style and theme element of culture’s other than one’s own) is considered a valid practice in contemporary art, some Indigenous artists have come under scrutiny for using styles and motif that are not connected to their own country (e.g., Western Desert ‘dot’ painting or the Rarrk feature of Kunwinjku art styles from Northern Australia) especially those who have been raised and live in urban areas.
A view of different styles of Indigenous visual art is possible through the following links:
https://www.aboriginal-art-australia.com/aboriginal-art-library/aboriginal-art-styles/
https://japingkaaboriginalart.com/articles/facts-about-aboriginal-art/
Visual artists often need permission to paint a particular story. Where important stories are concerned, and particularly those containing secret or sacred information, an artist must have permission to paint the story. Traditional Aboriginal artists cannot paint a story that does not belong to them through family lineage.
Aboriginal art on canvas and board only began about 50 years ago: Traditionally, the paintings we now see on canvas, were scratched or drawn on rock walls, used in body paint or on ceremonial articles and importantly, drawn in the ground accompanied by song or story.
In 1971, Geoffrey Bardon, a school teacher working with Aboriginal children in Papunya, noticed the Aboriginal men, while telling stories to others, were drawing symbols in the sand. He encouraged them to put these stories down on board and canvas. Since then, Australian Aboriginal Art has been tagged as one of the most exciting contemporary art form of the 20th Century.
Aboriginal visual art has assisted cultural revival. As the older artists teach the young, it revitalises young Indigenous people's appreciation and knowledge of their culture. This also increases self-esteem and pride in one’s culture and gives non-Aboriginal people an accessible avenue to build stronger bridges of understanding.
More information in the following links on Aboriginal painting.
Understanding Symbols in Aboriginal painting:
https://japingkaaboriginalart.com/articles/aboriginal-art-symbols/ (This web page includes imbedded videos to watch)
There are rock paintings and carvings scattered across the country. Many of them are off the beaten track, while others are seen on a regular basis in such as in national parks. Rock carvings in Kilarney Heights, at the edge of Gaddigal national park (Sydney north side), have 1950’s homes built all along a big rock shelf. In one yard, where the rock carvings become obvious in the afternoon light, there is a Hills Hoist cemented into the rock in the middle of the carvings. This is now on the register (since 2014) when the renting resident made some enquiries and had a traditional owner come with the Heritage Council to investigate.
Rock art styles:
https://www.creativespirits.info/aboriginalculture/arts/aboriginal-rock-art
Styles/regions:
http://www.aboriginalartstore.com.au/aboriginal-art-culture/aboriginal-art-regions/
International Profile of Aboriginal Visual Art
Aboriginal works account for the majority of static visual arts export in Australia. Western desert style painting still has a major profile. This style of painting is highly sought after by international visitors and art collectors and is a multimillion-dollar business. There are quite a few very high-profile, well-known collectors who have huge collections of Australian Aboriginal art. More contemporary works which take major reference to desert and other traditional styles are also sought after.
Objects such as Yidaki (Didgeridoo), boomerangs, woven bags and baskets, and Coolamon are also considered collectable pieces. The more traditional the higher the asking price. This does not include shiny, overly painted pieces with non-traditional colours which are obviously made for the tourist market and are often made in Asia.
The provenance of the work (knowing where the work comes from) is one of the most important things about applying a dollar value to these works, especially for the collectable and international markets. This most often also means that the work is ethically sourced and appropriate funds and acknowledgements get back to the artist.
At Tranby, on Gadigal country, there are paintings and sculptural/ object-based works displayed around the campus. All these works were created by Aboriginal artists. There is also information about some of the artists, displayed alongside many of the works.
The Role of Elders in Maintaining Cultural Identity
Elders are the closest link to traditional culture. They are usually initiated persons who are the keepers of knowledge. Cultural knowledge and traditions are passed on to the next generation through elders.
Creation stories provide information on cultural rules or laws for living. The Dreaming provides rules for social relationships, economic activities, religious activities and ceremonies. Elders know the creation stories and have deep knowledge of how the lessons taught through the Dreaming stories can be applied to ways of living a cultural life.
In some communities, men and women are elders with equal standing; in others it may be a few men who hold that status.
Aboriginal peoples reveal their culture bit by bit to the younger generations. "You have to be initiated and trusted to be able to give another level of culture to [another] person," says Aboriginal woman Kathy Balngayngu Marika.
Elders are usually addressed with "uncle" or "aunty" as a term of respect. These terms are used for people held in esteem, generally older people who have earned that respect but they are not necessarily elders. Being older or senior does not mean that people are elders. It takes a long time to become an elder.
Jenny Munro, a Wiradjuri woman says,
"You become an Elder because you have lived your life in a particular fashion giving service to your community. Your wider group will decide that you've reached a milestone and that you are then an elder”.
It is important to make an effort to make and/or maintain relationships with elders and traditional owners to maintain or rediscover cultural protocols and beliefs. These relationships are where you can build a deeper understanding of the diversity of traditions and beliefs and educate yourself firsthand. Cultural education through elders is where you can build a firm basis for the respect for culture and knowledge holders.
You might have direct connections to elders already. Cherish these relationships and keep them going. This might need to include making time to travel to country to seek out elders and traditional owners of country to which your family is connected. If links to parental country of origin have been broken and you’re not sure where your country is, you may need to do some investigation to find out who the elders and knowledge holders are in the local community where you currently live.
Even for contemporary, more urbanised Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, relationships with mature Indigenous community member and elders can help to strengthen cultural identity and may be the basis for spiritual belief.
References:
https://aiatsis.gov.au/publications/products/subject-guide-indigenous-australians-festivals
https://australian.museum/learn/first-nations/barka/native-title-limitations/#:~:text=Under%20Native%20Title%2C%20commercial%20rights,be%20found%20on%20their%20lands.
https://www.kateowengallery.com/page/10-Facts-About-Aboriginal-Art.aspx
https://www.creativespirits.info/aboriginalculture/people/respect-for-elders-and-culture
https://www.csiro.au/en/Research/Environment/Land-management/Indigenous/Indigenous-calendars
Pascoe, Bruce. 2018. Dark Emu, Black Seeds: Agriculture or Accident?, Magabala Books
Gammage, Bill. 2011. The Biggest Estate on Earth, How Aborigines made Australia, Allen & Unwin
Walsh, Michael (1991). "Overview of indigenous languages of Australia". In Romaine, Suzanne. Language in Australia. Cambridge University Press. pp. 27–48. ISBN 978-0-521-33983-4.